MENTORING IN NEW ZEALAND:
AN OPTION TO CONSIDER FOR GIFTED STUDENTS

HELEN GRAY Massey University

When thirteen year old Asher Lev's passion for drawing was obviously as abiding as it was astounding, the Rebbe sent him to Jacob Kahn. There followed ten years of a very fruitful mentorship. Jacob set challenging tasks for Asher. First, he was instructed to study and master Picasso's Guernica, where it hung in the art museum. Another time he arrived at the studio to find Jacob had arranged for a nude female model - totally taboo for an Orthodox Jew, yet essential for Asher's growth as an artist.

Asher was often at Jacob's studio, painting, sweating, struggling alongside his mentor. He met Jacob's friends, listening in to their conversations about art and life. He spent summer holidays with Jacob and his wife at their beach house: walking, sketching, talking, thinking.

Through their relationship, Asher's incredible talent was shaped and nurtured. So was his identity, as an artist and as a Jew. Asher could not have become the great artist he did without his mentor. His Orthodox parents and yeshiva teachers expected, and could only offer, brilliance within their very conservative structures. Art was seen as foolishness, keeping one from Torah, or maybe even something from 'the other side'. Thankfully, the Rebbe had breadth of vision, and found a mentor for young Asher.

Although fictitious, Asher's story (Potok, 1972) is illustrative of the real-life experience of many eminent people. Their exceptional ability was nurtured and guided at a critical time by a specialist in their field. They were mentored. Davis and Rimm (1994) comment that the use of mentors for gifted students is a rapidly growing trend. By not being limited to schools, it is an option for parents to pursue for their children. Such thoughts invited investigation; this article presents my analysis and evaluation of mentoring.

Consideration of the why, what, where, and who of mentoring illustrates that it is an exciting concept, used effectively by many eminent people through the history of humanity. So, can it be applied usefully within New Zealand schools as a programme for their gifted students? The present climate allows for autonomy and flexibility at the local school level; this, plus the fact that mentoring requires minimal resources, are factors in its favour. However, the habits and attitudes of educators tend to counter-influence its adoption. The few New Zealand examples of mentoring I could find are described, indicating that it has proved worthwhile for some. An evaluation of mentoring shows that, while it may not be sufficient as the only provision for gifted students, there are many very positive benefits for those involved in such a relationship.

WHY USE MENTORING?

A number of research projects carried out over the past five decades indicate the value of mentoring for young people. In 1955, Pressey found that the exceptionally able people he studied had received a nurturing environment, including early mentoring by an able adult (cited in Sellin & Birch, 1980). Sheehy's Life Cycle Research (1976) showed that adults characterised by generativity in midlife were also characterised as benefiting from a mentor at an earlier age (Sellin & Birch, 1980). Simonton (1997) mentions studies by Bloom in 1985, and Feldman and Goldsmith in 1986, indicating that mentoring is crucial in the development of talented youth. Essays written by gifted students on experiences they found satisfying and valid included mentorships among the four most important items (Sellin & Birch, 1980).

Such findings could lead one to the conclusion that all young people would benefit from a mentor. However, mentoring is strongly recommended for many gifted students, whose characteristics mean that they require resources from outside the education system (Clasen & Clasen, 1997; Pirozzo, 1989; Simonton, 1997). These authors draw attention to the following groups who would benefit from mentoring:

• precocious students.
• students who have exhausted the school's resources. Reilly (1992) suggests that this be the key criterion for entering a mentorship project.
• children in disadvantaged circumstances.
• female students, especially during adolescence (Howard - Hamilton & Robinson, 1991).
• underachievers. Lemley (1994) notes that the real life experience gained out of school can provide the necessary challenge for bored gifted students.

Mentoring can also be seen as an option when schools cannot or will not provide in-school gifted programmes. In these situations, it could be initiated by parents or community members. Examples of such situations are in rural districts (Ellzey & Kames, 1991) and when schools fail to provide for gifted students because of lack of resources or based on philosophical reasons (Pirozzo, 1989).

WHAT IS MENTORING?

Mentoring is an ancient relationship, the word originating from Greek mythology. When Odysseus went journeying, he asked his trusted friend, Mentor, to care for and guide his son, Telemarchus, into adulthood.

Clasen and Clasen (1997) compare this classic relationship with current models. Similarities include the one-to-one and older-to-younger dimensions, as well as the fact that both parties find satisfaction in the relationship. Differences occur in commitment level - current arrangements are often not as long or as deep, and in the areas of guidance covered by the relationship. The classic model involves psychosocial growth, whereas some contemporary (usually short-­term) arrangements focus on gaining intellectual knowledge and skills, or on introduction to a career.

Other authors in the field list various meanings and models of mentoring (Kram, cited in Reilly, 1992; Sellin & Birch, 1980). They seek to distinguish between an arrangement to foster internal personal change, and one that offers the external reward of gains in an area of knowledge. However, this seems to be an artificial distinction. Reilly (1992) points out that in high school mentoring both these processes occur together. One would expect that, even if a mentorship is 'purely' subject-focused, personal psychosocial growth would occur as a spin-off of the mentoring dynamic: one-to-one relationship with a caring guiding adult. This is arguably what makes a mentor different from a resource-person. With his work in mentor programmes in Australia, Pirozzo (1989) found that a student's self-esteem is boosted as a result of individual attention, thus reducing various personality problems. Irvine and Lovett (1996) comment that mentoring can have connotations with dependency, but good mentoring is empowering, and results in strong independent individuals.

Let us focus more specifically on the nature of mentoring. As a programme option for gifted students, it usually consists of an extended relationship between a high school student and someone in the community (Davis & Rimm, 1994). The student receives preparatory work in research and study skills at school before visiting with the mentor in his or her workplace. These visits may be in school time, or in the student's own time. Because it is based on 'the noble ideal of people helping people' (Pirozzo, 1989), and is undertaken for mutual benefit, no money is exchanged. This is the typical picture; of course, there are exceptions. Mentors may be at primary school level; in this case the mentorship is not usually as long. Mentorships may be set up by the parents of gifted students, in which case many other variations may occur.

Of relevance here, as part of programming for gifted students, is Simonton's concept of indirect mentoring. This term refers to the emulation of role models of eminent achievement, who are dead (or otherwise inaccessible). He describes Einstein, who had portraits of Newton, Faraday and Maxwell on his study walls. They were 'the giants on whose shoulders Einstein stood'. Simonton suggests that because they form no links with those greats who were best in their field, many gifted children do not become eminent adults. "Without the deep desire to surpass admired predecessors, even the greatest gifts will seldom become genius" (Simonton, 1997, p. 345).

WHO IS EFFECTIVE IN MENTORING?

Mentoring can be better understood by examining the optimal characteristics of a mentor and mentee, and the roles assumed and tasks performed by a mentor as well as co-ordinating staff. Except where otherwise specified, this section draws from the writing of Clasen and Clasen (1997), Reilly (1992) and Sellin and Birch (1980).

Characteristics of a Mentor

Many attributes distinguish effective mentors, among them patience, optimism, flexibility, integrity, creativity, skill in communicating, and being in the generative stage of adult life. However, the two characteristics most commonly noted are expertise in the relevant field, and eagerness to impart it to a novice.

Expertise involves both knowledge and skill. Because gifted children are bright and curious and will ask all sorts of questions, their mentors need to be thoroughly conversant in their field (Emerson-Stonnell & Carter, 1994). If they can not answer students' questions, they will need to know how to help students find the answers. "Mentoring implies, at its heart, both a passion for and expertise in the discipline" (Porter, 1991, p. 49). Without passion for a field of study a person will not have developed the level of expertise essential to help another passionate learner.

Eagerness to impart one's learning and experience to another is integral to a good mentoring relationship. The mentor needs teaching skills to be able to articulate concepts (often complex) for children (Emerson­Stonnell & Carter, 1994). This requires an understanding of, and patience with, the developmental stages and needs of mentees. These two key attributes of mentorship are summed up well by authors describing a maths mentor programme: "the person should enjoy both children and mathematics" (Emerson-Stonnell & Carter, 1994, p.34).

Another important requirement for mentors is that they are teachable. While expertise and the desire to impart it are crucial, they do not necessarily ensure a satisfactory relationship. Aspects such as goal and expectations of the mentors hip, and feedback and evaluation procedures, must be considered (Clasen & Clasen, 1997). First-time mentors (and mentees) will need orientation and training in these aspects, as well as boundary and safety issues.

Characteristics of a Mentee

Reilly (1992), in her description of the Mentorship Connection in Minnesota, notes that the three essential traits looked for in would-be mentees are: strong motivation, above-average ability in the field of interest, and well-developed self-management skills. These basic traits are demonstrated in various characteristics listed by other authors. Mentees should show an abiding interest and enthusiasm in the field, a willingness to commit themselves to study for the intended period, and a level of maturity appropriate for an in-depth relationship with an adult. Those who have been involved in mentorship of primary school children may question the importance of maturity level. Perhaps at issue here is the mentor's ability to accommodate the student's maturity. Reilly (1992) is also adamant that the mentees have used up their school's resources before expecting professionals to give of their time and energy. Her programme ensures the mentees are ready to benefit, and not waste the mentor's time, by teaching them independent study skills. This ethos is in keeping with the intensive nature of mentoring in the programme. Students in this programme spend eight hours a week with their mentors for at least a term, at most a year. The ethos could be expressed by an inversion of the Biblical maxim: 'Much is required of those to whom much will be given'! Mentoring arrangements I investigated in New Zealand were less intensive, and required correspondingly less of their mentees.

Roles of a Mentor

Clasen and Clasen (1997) write that a mentor is a teacher, an expert, a guide, an advisor, a friend and a role model. A comprehensive list! Others point out that it is a close, colleague-type relationship, rather than that of teacher/tutor and student (Emerson Stonnell & Carter, 1994; Pirozzo, 1989).

Sellin and Birch (1980) make reference to an interesting slant on the roles of mentorship provided by Berne (1964) in Games People Play. Berne identified some the games that illustrate mentoring and hint at its motivation. 'Busman's Holiday' describes a person giving to young people even outside their work; for example, a teacher who runs Boy Scouts. The' Homey Sage' is a good listener, content to share from their store of wisdom without any need to dominate. Others are ‘Happy to Help’ those in need; expecting no recompense, they are satisfied in being helpful. Berne also describes 'They'll Be Glad They Knew Me'. Here, an adult serves as a benefactor or mentor to a young person, as a means of repaying what they themselves received in their youth. For example, a woman whose love of gardening was fostered in childhood by a neighbour giving her begonias, and teaching her to care for them, now mentors my daughter's interest in bonsai trees.

Tasks of Mentorship

Sellin and Birch (1980) describe the tasks of mentorship as two-fold. First, it involves helping gifted students refine the skills and methods of research, the communication of results and understanding of their implications. Second, it helps gifted students better manage their own learning. As well as acting on their curiosity, they need to learn how to manage their curiosity. This involves being not only a problem-­solver, but a problem-finder.

A more intuitive task assigned to mentors is that of supporting the mentee's dream, and facilitating its realization. Boston (1976) describes it as "the transformation of potential into actuality" (cited by Clasen & Clasen, 1997, p. 220). Another task a mentor may become involved in is advocating for their mentee, or for gifted students in general (Sellin & Birch, 1980).

Tasks of Co-ordinating Staff

School staff wanting to establish mentorships for their gifted students have three areas to consider: administration, personnel and programming. Mentorship goals should be clearly recorded, and in keeping with, if not specified by, school policies. This will include written criteria for student selection (Davis & Rimm, 1994). Good communication with all the personnel involved in the mentor programme will aid its success. As well as selecting and matching mentors and mentees, a co-ordinator would be advised to provide them with some form of orientation. This could include discussion on roles, responsibilities, expectations, and relationship dynamics. It would be good policy to include parents and implicated staff in this orientation.

Mentorship should be seen as part of a total programme for gifted students, as will be further discussed. Gaining independence and proficiency in study and research skills, in addition to the skills involved in relating to adults in the workplace, form useful learning and preparation for the students (Densem & Beard, 1984; Reilly, 1992). The co­ordinator should also establish and maintain feedback and evaluation strategies, so any difficulties in the mentor relationship can be addressed.

THE NEW ZEALAND SCENE
Structural Aspects

Tomorrow's Schools has resulted in a devolution of decision-making powers to the local level, particularly to each school's Board of Trustees. This autonomy means a school has greater flexibility concerning programming and resourcing (McAlpine, 1995; Moltzen, 1993). Tomorrow's Schools also results in parents having more say, through Boards of Trustees. A second salient factor is the lack of direction from government departments concerning educational programmes for gifted students.

The combined effect of these factors on educating our gifted students is:

a)Programmes depend on the advocacy and commitment of individuals (McAlpine, 1995). This can now include parents as well as teachers and principals.

b)Programmes vary from school to school, and can be used to attract students. It means that if a student moves and changes schools, there is no guarantee of continuity of special provision.

In other words, there is great freedom for an individual school to develop excellent programmes for gifted students, including mentoring, but the overall picture is one of great variation and inconsistency.

Resources

Programmes for the gifted have not been well resourced in New Zealand, in keeping with the lack of clear policy on gifted education. Moltzen (1993) comments that such programmes are most susceptible to fluctuations in finance. They are treated as a luxury to dispense with when times get tough. They would need to be a high priority for a school, commented one principal, to get resources. Densem and Beard (1984) make it clear that what a school can provide is a play-off between student needs and school resources and demands. The resulting course of action depends largely on the vision and attitudes of those in power - hence the patchwork nature of gifted programmes in New Zealand.

A survey conducted by McAlpine in 1992 asked schools to rank what they most needed, to help them develop programmes for their gifted students. The four highest ranking items, out of fifteen, were: extra funds and space; extra staff; teacher education; and subject information, for example, in science, music or computing (McAlpine, 1995). Pirozzo's thesis in support of mentoring is that it undermines philosophical and economic constraints. It does not need to involve much staff time, it is not expensive, and may not require room or timetable changes. Mentoring is an option schools could pursue without the extra resources ranked above. In this respect, it is a feasible programme for gifted students in New Zealand at the present time.

National Goals

The National Curriculum of New Zealand (1991) made a commitment to an education embodying equity and excellence. Students should be given the opportunities to achieve their potential. This policy provides support of mentoring as an appropriate programme for gifted students. It is quite likely that many gifted students exhaust their school's resources in specific domains, especially at higher secondary school level. To continue study that will enable them to reach their potential, involvement of community specialists is indicated. Mentoring is an effective way to achieve this.

Beliefs and Attitudes of Teachers

In New Zealand, teachers are strongly in favour of keeping students with their age peers, which prejudices them against acceleration (Townsend & Patrick, 1993, cited in McAlpine, 1995). This attitude could support mentoring as a programme option, as it provides both acceleration and enrichment while allowing the student to stay in their regular class. A mentor relationship usually only takes the student away for a few hours per week, or it may even happen in out-of-school time.

Most provisions for gifted students in New Zealand are within regular classrooms (McAlpine, 1995). Teachers tend to be satisfied with what they offer gifted students in their care (Townsend & Patrick, 1993). This attitude could result in a reluctance to draw on the expertise of others, crucial in a mentoring programme. Further, some teachers do not like their 'best' students being taken away for a special programme (Densem & Beard, 1984). Another attitude against students going beyond classroom or school is that teachers are getting paid for educating their students; expecting community personnel to do this suggests a lack of responsibility, or failure,

A survey of teacher preferences for various gifted programmes in the USA (Gallagher, 1987, cited in McAlpine, 1995) indicated that mentoring is not a popular choice. It ranked lowest as a strategy for elementary schools, and fifth (out of seven) as a strategy for secondary schools. Local evidence suggests that this trend is similar in New Zealand. Reasons for its unpopularity were not given, but some of the local attitudes already noted may be involved.

Examples of Mentoring in New Zealand

The ERO report, Working with Students with SpeciaI Abtlities (1998), lists 'mentoring or tutoring programmes' among withdrawal programmes commonly used in schools. My investigation of five local high schools would not support this as a common occurrence. Only one of these schools offered gifted students more than an occasional extension class in specific subjects. This particular school used staff members as mentors, as they worked with a few students to draw up and administer Individual Education Programmes (IEPs). In this context the mentor's role would be as a guide and an advisor. The mentorship demands only a brief commitment from both parties and would be correspondingly limited in the resulting cognitive and psychosocial gains.

One primary school responded that they sometimes arranged group mentoring. For example, an artist would come into the school and work with a group of artistically gifted children, for six sessions. I would not call this mentoring; the group context does not foster the personal nurturing relationship that occurs in the one-to one. The adult working with a group is better described as a resource person.

A subject search of academic and educational publications yielded no specific information on mentoring programmes in New Zealand. If they are common, they are certainly not being reviewed in journals!

A few examples can be found in McAlpine, and Moltzen's (1996) Gifted and Talented: New Zealand Perspectives. Macleod (1996) describes how a high school student passionately interested in taxidermy was mentored by a museum biologist and then a taxidermist. As well as developing competency in taxidermy, the student formed a close friendship with the mentor. Fitzgerald and Keown (1996), in their discussion of the issues facing gifted females, stress the importance of mentors for these students. They cite the case of Marama, whose principals at both primary and secondary levels helped her develop her language gifts and her positive self-image. Clearly, the oldest examples of mentoring in New Zealand date from traditional Maori educational programmes. Under this system, children showing special ability and interest in a field were mentored by a tohunga, or expert (Taylor, 1986).

Judging by data I could obtain, the most comprehensive mentor programme to operate in New Zealand was the Learning Activity Mentor Programme (LAMP), established by Densem and Beard in Christchurch in the early 1980s. They described it at the Third National Conference of Gifted and Talented Children in 1984. The programme began in one school, but grew to involve at least five schools, and upwards of 1 00 pupils. Students identified as academically able were given a differentiated programme. This had the following characteristics, which may have varied from school to school:

• It involved only third and fourth formers, with the odd exception.
• Students were organised into groups, which met regularly (e.g., once a week or fortnight) with the co-ordinating teacher, usually in school time. At these meetings, they learned a range of skills ­creative thinking, problem-solving, research, independent study, time management - as well as addressing affective needs, maybe with the help of the school counsellor.
• Students then selected an area of interest to pursue for an individual or small group programme. The co-ordinator linked them with a mentor who could provide expertise and guidance. Meetings with the mentor or interest group usually, but not always, took place out of school time.
• Projects were often presented to interested people - parents, staff, principal- at the end of the year.
• The emphasis was on the voluntary nature of the programme, both for students and mentors, and it was a matter of individual choice how much time students spent on their projects.
• Mentors were mostly university lecturers; other community experts were contacted through Rotary, WEA, and Learning Exchange.
• Topics for which mentors were available included: geology, palaeontology, physics, meteorology, poetry, German, early music, motorcycle racing and drama in education. Densem and Beard (1984) believe any topic that interests students is worthwhile. They consider the benefit of the programme lies in enhanced learning for its own sake, as well as the skills developed that can be applied to any area of academic enquiry.

While LAMP is the most comprehensive mentor programme I have come across in New Zealand, the model of mentorship is not intensive compared with The Mentorship Connection in the USA (Reilly, 1992). Student time with their mentor was short-­term - it may have involved only four or five meetings. It embodied a subject-focused model of mentoring; in some situations, I expect there would have been little psychosocial growth. All the same, as the programme involved affective and study skill needs, the students would have gained a broad range of benefits.

The New Zealand examples of mentoring cited so far have been organised by schools. While evidence suggests that not many schools use it in their programmes, it appears to be an option frequently pursued by parents of gifted children. It is perhaps one of the few courses of action available when schooling is not meeting their child's needs, and advocacy yields poor results. Enquiries to the local (very small) branch of the Association of Gifted Children revealed that, of the handful of families involved, two had found mentors for their sons, and one was pursuing the idea. In one instance, a seven ­year old boy went weekly to the museum curator for an hour session, after school. Mark's passion for dinosaurs was broadened as he learned about and handled bones, and worked through lessons planned for him by the curator. Unfortunately the programme only ran for a term - the curator could spare no more time. During that time, however, the one hour a week effected gains in other aspects of Mark's life. He was happier at school, he had something to stimulate and excite him, and his knowledge was broadened as he read more books for his museum ‘homework’.

EVALUATION OF MENTORING
Weaknesses

These fall into two categories: those that emerge in relation to total programming for gifted students, and those specific aspects of mentoring that may be problematic, but which can be overcome.

First, mentoring is inadequate as a sole programme for gifted students for the following reasons:

a) It can usually only cater for a small number of students, so some gifted students' needs will not be addressed.

b) It is seldom long-term enough to meet a student's needs for a differentiated programme right through their schooling. Mentors can often only commit themselves for a limited time.

c) It does not necessarily result in the application of the new skills learned into other areas of study. The mentor's influence will usually be limited to the specialist area.

d) Its focus on a specialist knowledge area may be limiting; enrichment and knowledge in a wide range of subjects may be a better preparation for eminence, argues Cathcart (1994). She cites the example of Colin McMahon, who was skilled and knowledgeable in many things besides painting, and these things gave vision to his art.

e) Its ability focus may also result in overlooking the social and emotional needs of gifted students (ibid), compared to a programme which considers the student as a whole person. On the other hand, as Pirozzo (1989) suggests, the attention and nurture implicit in a one-to-one relationship may meet these needs very well.

f) It could result in teachers avoiding the responsibility of addressing the needs of gifted students in their classrooms. 'Leave it to the experts!'

Some of the reasons listed above are in common with other withdrawal programmes. Cathcart (1994) argues that an effective programme will consider all the needs of an able student, not just their cognitive development. She also believes that exceptionally able students learn differently than 'normal' students, so their whole programme should be different. (That is why she developed the REACH programme: Responding to Exceptionally Able Children). Of course, in the play-off between the needs of an entire school population and the resources available, that is not always possible.

Second, some specific aspects of mentoring can be problematic, but steps can be taken to overcome these, as will now be discussed.

a) Mentoring can involve administrative awkwardness and inconvenience (Sellin & Birch, 1980). This is surely common to any new programme. A co-ordinator with enthusiasm for the concept will overcome the hassles, and once a programme is established, inconvenience is minimal. Pirozzo (1989) circumvents this objection by suggesting mentor arrangements happen in the student's own time. Students involved in any sort of withdrawal suffer the inconvenience of having to catch up on missed work. For Year 11-13 students with external assessments to pass, this could be difficult. If they need to complete all their regular class work, as well as projects they are pursuing with a mentor, in their own time, they will have a heavy work load. The Mentorship Project described by Reilly (1992) in the USA was an alternative to other courses, and participants received credit towards qualifications. I have not been able to find out if this could work in our present New Zealand education system, but the greater flexibility of the unit standards approach may hopefully allow for this.

b) The mentor's attitudes could create problems. Simonton (1997) suggests that mentors may be driven to 'clone' themselves through their students. To avoid this, he recommends multiple mentors. This would be more of a problem in an intensive mentorship, which we have seen little of in New Zealand. Clasen and Clasen (1997) comment that some mentors are not very good at coping with a student's developmental needs, in which case a second mentor - usually the co-ordinating teacher - may be able to help the student with areas of personal growth. This would be more likely to happen where mentors are selected solely for their expertise in a specialist area. As outlined earlier, a good mentor is also skilled at, and eager to, relate their expertise to a novice. Problems can arise in a long-term mentorship if/when a student comes to surpass the mentor in some way. However, it can be reduced by preparing for it in preliminary discussions on the dynamics, boundaries and responsibilities of mentorship (Clasen & Clasen, 1997).

c) Having another adult role model may be a threat in some families (Clasen & Clasen, 1997). Significant family members may need support to deal with this. It helps if they are involved in and informed of the process as much as possible. Conversely, in single parent families, the extra adult role model is beneficial. Mark's mother reported that it was positive for Mark to have an adult male in his life.

Strengths

Despite its limitations, mentoring provides many great benefits for the students and schools involved, as well as for the mentors.

Benefits for the Mentees

a) Mentorships are usually established to promote cognitive growth, and this is a major gain. Students' knowledge and understanding in a field is increased, and broadened, beyond the limits of what a school can provide (Davis & Rimm, 1994; Pirozzo, 1989; Reilly, 1992; Sellin & Birch, 1980). The students gain skills relating to the field (e.g., taxidermy), as well as research and critical thinking skills (Reilly, 1992). Their interest in learning for learning's sake is enhanced and restored by sharing their enthusiasms with another enthusiast (Densem & Beard, 1984).

b) Psychosocial growth is the other major gain of mentorship. Reilly (1992) has observed the strengthening of certain personal characteristics through mentoring: confidence, persistence, personal empowerment, self-efficacy, self­-knowledge and autonomy. The process by which mentoring promotes self-efficacy has been termed scaffolding. This process occurs when there is graduated assistance during learning, from someone more knowledgeable and experienced (Rawlinson, 1996). Presumably, as the student masters a concept or skill, part of the scaffold is removed. Scaffolding is one dimension of mentoring that fosters psychosocial gains. Another dimension is nurturing. A student feels valued to receive a supportive adult's full attention and time, and this improves the student's self-esteem (Pirozzo, 1989). A third dimension is interacting in an adult world. Developing and using personal skills amongst adults boosts confidence, self esteem and empowerment (Reilly, 1992). A fourth dimension is role-modelling by the mentor, through which students learn maturity and responsibility (Sellin & Birch, 1980). It is particularly important for gifted females to have a female mentor, who can model alternatives to traditional societal expectations for young women. These expectations often limit the realisation of potential (Macleod, 1994, in Fitzgerald and Keown, 1996). Gifted female students need models of androgynous professional women. Such mentorships can also provide the opportunity to share information regarding family versus career choices, and how to deal with the negative attitudes a gifted female will encounter (Howard-Hamilton & Robinson, 1991).

c) Mentoring often gives insight into a possible career (Clasen & Clasen, 1997; Lemley, 1994; Reilly, 1992). Sheehy, in her Life Cycle Research, observed that people who had worked under mentors usually progressed more quickly through career hurdles, bounced back sooner from career shocks, and had firmer career goals (cited in Sellin & Birch, 1980). This suggests that mentorship helps a student form more realistic ideas both about themselves and about careers. Some authors comment positively on the 'real-world' focus of mentoring (Davis & Rirnm, 1994; Lemley, 1994). From first-hand experience, students learn the significance of certain tasks, and make connections with a larger world than school offers (Clasen & Clasen, 1997; Irvine & Lovett, 1996; Reilly, 1992). Another aspect of this is that their learning is active and interactive, rather than passive. Making this point, Irvine and Lovett (1996, p. 35) quote from Augustine's Confessions, "And so I learned not from those who taught, but from those who talked with me." (This is not to say that classroom learning is not interactive at times.)

d) Mentoring, especially where a close relationship develops, offers support and friendship (Reilly, 1992). This may be shown by mentors advocating on behalf of their students, or gifted students in general (Sellin & Birch, 1980). These authors also describe how a mentor can serve as a buffer to protect the mentee from those threatened by more able people.

e) A strength of mentoring as a programme is that it provides enrichment and acceleration to those missing out otherwise (Cathcart, 1994; Clasen & Clasen, 1997; Pirozzo, 1989). Whether students have a specialised need the school can not cater for, or whether the school just does not believe in providing for their gifted students, mentoring can be an answer. It can be organised by school staff, community personnel, or parents. Fraser (1996, p. 451) describes "accessing people with a passion in the particular interests of a gifted child" as an important part of parenting the gifted. Once freed of school programming constraints, the mentorship can be as long-term or intensive as all parties agree to. Thus, Potok's fictitious Jacob Kahn mentored Asher Lev for about ten years, while Mark met with the museum curator for just ten weeks.

Benefits for the Mentor

Emerson-Stonnell and Carter describe their involvement in the Maths Mentor Programme as "an overwhelmingly enjoyable experience" (1994, p 41). All who participated received" great gratification". Others have written about the benefits accruing to mentors. They are re-enthused by the fresh perspective and interest of the mentee (pirozzo, 1989). They have the satisfaction of passing tradition to a new generation (Clasen & Clasen, 1997). Erikson (1963) has described the need to be needed that characterises maturity, and how in the generative phase one possesses a drive to establish and guide the next generation. Mentoring enables an adult to fulfil these needs and drives. In some intensive, long-term mentorships the mentee is actually of practical help, working alongside the mentor. This would help compensate for time and energy invested by the mentor, if compensation is sought.

Benefits for Schools

Compared to other programmes, mentoring may not involve much of a school's resources - money and staff - or create administrative challenges like timetable changes, or special classes (Pirozzo, 1989). This is especially true if students meet with mentors in their own time.

A school can benefit from the links with the wider community that are formed through mentoring (Clasen & Clasen, 1997; Davis & Rimm, 1994; Pirozzo, 1989). As well as the student's growing expertise being shared among peers, businesses and tertiary institutions may have other resources of benefit to the school.

ANALYSIS

From an examination of mentoring's weak and strong points one can draw the following conclusions:

1. Mentoring is best used as part of a more comprehensive programme, as one means, among many, of providing acceleration and enrichment for gifted students. It can be incorporated into phase three of Renzulli's Enrichment Triad Model at primary and secondary levels (Macleod, 1996; Riley, 1996), and dimension five of Betts' Autonomous Lerner Model (Taylor, 1996). The Mentorship Connection in Minnesota, and LAMP in Christchurch make mentoring their key focus, but students also receive in-school enrichment in terms of study and research skill training, and help with their social and emotional needs.

2. As the sole provision for gifted students, its usefulness will depend largely on the vision and attributes of the mentor. For parents and children frustrated by a school's neglect of gifted students, it is a worthwhile option to pursue. Mark was greatly helped for the duration of his mentorship. The mentor relationship is beneficial chiefly for the cognitive and psychosocial growth of the students involved

3. Mentoring is applicable to the New Zealand school situation, especially at upper primary and lower secondary levels. There is not great justification for out -of-school mentors at lower primary level, as students are less likely to have exhausted the school's resources. Also, many children of this age will not have the motivation and maturity for the commitment involved. At upper secondary school level, mentoring is an excellent option, in terms of student readiness. They:

• are likely to have exhausted the school's resources;
• are in the time of transition from adolescence to adulthood, with relationship/role model needs;
• are fairly independent, maybe in travelling alone, hopefully in study habits;
• have a fair measure of maturity and self­ knowledge, so will know their degree of passion for a field, and their ability to commit themselves.
  
  

Despite its appropriateness for the New Zealand scene, my investigations did not discover it being used very often. I echo Simonton's comment, "Although mentorships frequently are recommended as a component of gifted programming, those who work with school districts recognise that mentorships involving gifted students actually are not common" 1997, p. 222). Some possible explanations for this are:

• in the upper secondary school, there is pressure to conform to external exam schedules;
• there is a certain attitude towards gifted students in New Zealand, that achieving extremely high marks in national examinations is the best goal to aim for. This results in a narrow focus on curriculum subjects and may work against pursuit of a specialist passion through mentoring;
• many schools are insular and self-contained, believing they can cope well on their own, or regarding movement beyond school as too troublesome;
• in a small town like mine there might not be many suitable mentors in the community; and
• mentoring may be perceived as giving privilege to a few; school staff might prefer to bring a resource person in, and include more students in the benefits.

CONCLUSION

This discussion sought to inspire the reader with the vision and concept of mentoring: its purpose for specific needs, its essential nature, and what is expected of those involved in mentorship. It then considered trends, goals, and attitudes in the education system of New Zealand that might determine the appropriateness of mentoring for gifted students in our country.

An evaluation of its negative and positive aspects showed that, provided a student's broad range of needs are attended to, there is much to be gained from mentoring. It is an option that yields great results for the limited expense and organization required from a school. Despite this, and its compatibility with our national education system, it is not common in New Zealand, particularly in its intensive, long-term form. This reflects the limiting attitude to any special provisions for gifted students in New Zealand. The great attraction of mentoring is that it offers individuals an alternative to being totally disadvantaged by this limiting attitude. Families can at least take some steps to cater for the special needs of their gifted members, and set up their own mentoring arrangements.

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